Juftlik savdosida masofa yondashuvi: Rust yordamida amalga oshirish va tahlil

Juftlik savdosidagi Masofa yondashuvi o'zining nafis soddaligi va samaradorligi tufayli katta ommaviylikka erishdi. Ushbu texnika statistik o'lchovlar orqali aktiv juftliklarini aniqlaydi va ularning narx munosabatlarining ajralishi hamda yaqinlashishiga asoslanib savdo qiladi. Ushbu maqola asosiy va ilgor Masofa yondashuvi metodologiyalarining keng qamrovli tahlilini, mustahkam yechimlar izlayotgan yuqori chastotali treyderlar, algoritmik dasturchilar, matematiklar va dasturchilar uchun moslashtirilgan Rust'dagi amaliy implementatsiyalar bilan taqdim etadi.

Masofa yondashuvini vizualizatsiya qilish: A va B aktivlari bir-birini kuzatib boradi, savdo signallari spred ajralishiga asoslanib generatsiya qilinadi (Long/Short)

Masofa yondashuvining nazariy asosi

Masofa yondashuvi aktivlar orasidagi normallashtirilgan narx harakatlariga asoslangan juftlik savdosi uchun asos yaratadi. O'zining mohiyatida usul tarixiy jihatdan birgalikda harakatlanadigan aktivlarni aniqlash uchun Evklid kvadratik masofa o'lchovlaridan foydalanadi va ularning normallashtirilgan narx ajralishi statistik jihatdan muhim chegaralardan oshib ketganda savdo signallarini generatsiya qiladi[2].

Ushbu yondashuv ikkita asosiy bosqichdan iborat:

1. Juftliklarni shakllantirish - statistik jihatdan bog'liq aktiv juftliklarini aniqlash
2. Savdo signalini generatsiya qilish - ajralishga asoslangan kirish va chiqish qoidalarini yaratish

Matematik asos

Asosiy implementatsiya normallashtirilgan narx qatorlari orasidagi Evklid masofasidan foydalanadi. Normallashtirilgan narx vaqt qatorlari X va Y bo'lgan ikkita aktiv uchun biz quyidagini hisoblaymiz:

fn euclidean_squared_distance(x: &[f64], y: &[f64]) -> f64 {
    assert_eq!(x.len(), y.len(), "Time series must have equal length");
    
    x.iter()
        .zip(y.iter())
        .map(|(xi, yi)| (xi - yi).powi(2))
        .sum()
}

Ushbu masofa metrikasi tarixiy jihatdan birgalikda harakatlanadigan aktivlarni aniqlashga yordam beradi va statistik arbitraj imkoniyatlari uchun asos yaratadi[2].

Asosiy Masofa yondashuvi implementatsiyasi

Ma'lumotlarni normallashtirish

Masofalarni hisoblashdan oldin biz taqqoslanadigan miqyoslarni o'rnatish uchun narx ma'lumotlarini normallashtirishimiz kerak. Min-max normallashtirish ko'p qo'llaniladi:

fn min_max_normalize(prices: &[f64]) -> Vec<f64> {
    if prices.is_empty() {
        return Vec::new();
    }
    
    let min_price = prices.iter().fold(f64::INFINITY, |a, &b| a.min(b));
    let max_price = prices.iter().fold(f64::NEG_INFINITY, |a, &b| a.max(b));
    let range = max_price - min_price;
    
    if range.abs() < f64::EPSILON {
        return vec![0.5; prices.len()];
    }
    
    prices.iter()
        .map(|&price| (price - min_price) / range)
        .collect()
}

Eng yaqin juftliklarni topish

Biz barcha aktiv kombinatsiyalari orasidagi Evklid masofasini hisoblab va eng kichik masofalarga ega bo'lganlarini tanlab, potentsial juftliklarni aniqlaymiz:

#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
struct StockPair {
    stock1_idx: usize,
    stock2_idx: usize,
    distance: f64,
}

impl PartialEq for StockPair {
    fn eq(&self, other: &Self) -> bool {
        self.distance.eq(&other.distance)
    }
}

impl Eq for StockPair {}

impl PartialOrd for StockPair {
    fn partial_cmp(&self, other: &Self) -> Option<std::cmp::Ordering> {
        self.distance.partial_cmp(&other.distance)
    }
}

impl Ord for StockPair {
    fn cmp(&self, other: &Self) -> std::cmp::Ordering {
        self.partial_cmp(other).unwrap_or(std::cmp::Ordering::Equal)
    }
}

fn find_closest_pairs(normalized_prices: &[Vec<f64>], top_n: usize) -> Vec<StockPair> {
    let stock_count = normalized_prices.len();
    let mut pairs = BinaryHeap::new();
    
    for i in 0..stock_count {
        for j in (i+1)..stock_count {
            let distance = euclidean_squared_distance(&normalized_prices[i], &normalized_prices[j]);
            
            pairs.push(Reverse(StockPair {
                stock1_idx: i,
                stock2_idx: j,
                distance,
            }));
            
            // Keep only top N pairs
            if pairs.len() > top_n {
                pairs.pop();
            }
        }
    }
    
    // Convert from heap to vector and reverse to get ascending order
    pairs.into_iter().map(|Reverse(pair)| pair).collect()
}

Tarixiy volatillikni hisoblash

Tarixiy volatillikni hisoblash mos savdo chegaralarini o'rnatish uchun juda muhim:

fn calculate_spread_volatility(normalized_price1: &[f64], normalized_price2: &[f64]) -> f64 {
    assert_eq!(normalized_price1.len(), normalized_price2.len());
    
    // Calculate price spread
    let spread: Vec<f64> = normalized_price1.iter()
        .zip(normalized_price2.iter())
        .map(|(p1, p2)| p1 - p2)
        .collect();
    
    // Calculate mean of spread
    let mean = spread.iter().sum::<f64>() / spread.len() as f64;
    
    // Calculate standard deviation
    let variance = spread.iter()
        .map(|&x| (x - mean).powi(2))
        .sum::<f64>() / spread.len() as f64;
    
    variance.sqrt()
}

Ilgor tanlash usullari

Soha guruhi bo'yicha filtrlash

Juftlik tanlashni bir xil sohaga cheklash iqtisodiy jihatdan bog'liq aktivlarni tanlash orqali samaradorlikni oshirishi mumkin:

fn find_industry_pairs(
    normalized_prices: &[Vec<f64>], 
    industry_codes: &[usize], 
    top_n_per_industry: usize
) -> Vec<StockPair> {
    // Group stocks by industry
    let mut industry_groups: std::collections::HashMap<usize, Vec<usize>> = std::collections::HashMap::new();
    
    for (idx, &code) in industry_codes.iter().enumerate() {
        industry_groups.entry(code).or_default().push(idx);
    }
    
    // Find closest pairs within each industry
    let mut all_pairs = Vec::new();
    
    for (_industry_code, stock_indices) in industry_groups {
        let mut industry_pairs = Vec::new();
        
        for i in 0..stock_indices.len() {
            for j in (i+1)..stock_indices.len() {
                let stock1_idx = stock_indices[i];
                let stock2_idx = stock_indices[j];
                let distance = euclidean_squared_distance(
                    &normalized_prices[stock1_idx], 
                    &normalized_prices[stock2_idx]
                );
                
                industry_pairs.push(StockPair {
                    stock1_idx,
                    stock2_idx,
                    distance,
                });
            }
        }
        
        // Sort pairs by distance
        industry_pairs.sort_by(|a, b| a.distance.partial_cmp(&b.distance).unwrap());
        
        // Take top N from each industry
        let top_pairs: Vec<StockPair> = industry_pairs.into_iter()
            .take(top_n_per_industry)
            .collect();
            
        all_pairs.extend(top_pairs);
    }
    
    all_pairs
}

Nol kesishmalar yondashuvi tez-tez yaqinlashish va ajralishga ega juftliklarni aniqlaydi, bu esa ehtimoliy jihatdan yanada foydali savdo imkoniyatlarini ko'rsatishi mumkin:

Nol kesishmalar kontseptsiyasi: spredning nol chizig'ini kesib o'tishi bilan ko'rsatilgan, tez-tez o'rtacha qiymatga qaytadigan juftliklarni aniqlash

fn count_zero_crossings(spread: &[f64]) -> usize {
    if spread.len() < 2 {
        return 0;
    }
    
    let mut count = 0;
    for i in 1..spread.len() {
        if (spread[i-1] < 0.0 && spread[i] >= 0.0) || 
           (spread[i-1] >= 0.0 && spread[i] < 0.0) {
            count += 1;
        }
    }
    
    count
}

fn find_zero_crossing_pairs(
    normalized_prices: &[Vec<f64>],
    top_distance_threshold: f64,
    min_crossings: usize
) -> Vec<StockPair> {
    let stock_count = normalized_prices.len();
    let mut qualifying_pairs = Vec::new();
    
    for i in 0..stock_count {
        for j in (i+1)..stock_count {
            let distance = euclidean_squared_distance(&normalized_prices[i], &normalized_prices[j]);
            
            // Only consider pairs with distance below threshold
            if distance < top_distance_threshold {
                // Calculate spread
                let spread: Vec<f64> = normalized_prices[i].iter()
                    .zip(normalized_prices[j].iter())
                    .map(|(p1, p2)| p1 - p2)
                    .collect();
                
                let crossings = count_zero_crossings(&spread);
                
                if crossings >= min_crossings {
                    qualifying_pairs.push(StockPair {
                        stock1_idx: i,
                        stock2_idx: j,
                        distance,
                    });
                }
            }
        }
    }
    
    // Sort by number of crossings (could extend StockPair to include this)
    qualifying_pairs.sort_by(|a, b| a.distance.partial_cmp(&b.distance).unwrap());
    qualifying_pairs
}

Tarixiy standart chetlanishni hisobga olish

Ushbu usul yuqori spred volatilligiga ega juftliklarga ustuvorlik berish orqali asosiy yondashuvning bir cheklovini bartaraf etadi, bu esa foyda potentsialini oshirishi mumkin:

fn find_highsd_pairs(
    normalized_prices: &[Vec<f64>],
    top_distance_count: usize,
    min_volatility: f64
) -> Vec<StockPair> {
    let stock_count = normalized_prices.len();
    let mut all_pairs = Vec::new();
    
    for i in 0..stock_count {
        for j in (i+1)..stock_count {
            let distance = euclidean_squared_distance(&normalized_prices[i], &normalized_prices[j]);
            
            // Calculate spread volatility
            let spread: Vec<f64> = normalized_prices[i].iter()
                .zip(normalized_prices[j].iter())
                .map(|(p1, p2)| p1 - p2)
                .collect();
            
            let volatility = calculate_spread_volatility(&normalized_prices[i], &normalized_prices[j]);
            
            if volatility >= min_volatility {
                all_pairs.push(StockPair {
                    stock1_idx: i,
                    stock2_idx: j,
                    distance,
                });
            }
        }
    }
    
    // Sort by distance
    all_pairs.sort_by(|a, b| a.distance.partial_cmp(&b.distance).unwrap());
    
    // Take top N pairs with highest volatility that meet distance criteria
    all_pairs.into_iter().take(top_distance_count).collect()
}

Ilgor yondashuv: Pirson korrelyatsiya usuli

Pirson korrelyatsiya yondashuvi asosiy Masofa yondashuviga nisbatan bir necha afzalliklarni taqdim etadi, narx masofalari o'rniga daromad korrelyatsiyalariga e'tibor qaratadi[1].

Rust'da implementatsiya

fn pearson_correlation(x: &[f64], y: &[f64]) -> f64 {
    assert_eq!(x.len(), y.len(), "Arrays must have the same length");
    
    let n = x.len() as f64;
    let sum_x: f64 = x.iter().sum();
    let sum_y: f64 = y.iter().sum();
    let sum_xx: f64 = x.iter().map(|&val| val * val).sum();
    let sum_yy: f64 = y.iter().map(|&val| val * val).sum();
    let sum_xy: f64 = x.iter().zip(y.iter()).map(|(&xi, &yi)| xi * yi).sum();
    
    let numerator = n * sum_xy - sum_x * sum_y;
    let denominator = ((n * sum_xx - sum_x * sum_x) * (n * sum_yy - sum_y * sum_y)).sqrt();
    
    if denominator.abs() < f64::EPSILON {
        return 0.0;
    }
    
    numerator / denominator
}

struct PearsonPair {
    stock_idx: usize,
    comover_indices: Vec<usize>,
    correlations: Vec<f64>,
}

fn find_pearson_pairs(returns: &[Vec<f64>], top_n_comovers: usize) -> Vec<PearsonPair> {
    let stock_count = returns.len();
    let mut all_pairs = Vec::new();
    
    for i in 0..stock_count {
        let mut correlations = Vec::with_capacity(stock_count - 1);
        
        for j in 0..stock_count {
            if i == j {
                continue;
            }
            
            let correlation = pearson_correlation(&returns[i], &returns[j]).abs();
            correlations.push((j, correlation));
        }
        
        // Sort by correlation (highest first)
        correlations.sort_by(|a, b| b.1.partial_cmp(&a.1).unwrap_or(std::cmp::Ordering::Equal));
        
        // Take top N comovers
        let top_comovers: Vec<(usize, f64)> = correlations.into_iter()
            .take(top_n_comovers)
            .collect();
            
        let (comover_indices, correlation_values): (Vec<usize>, Vec<f64>) = 
            top_comovers.into_iter().unzip();
            
        all_pairs.push(PearsonPair {
            stock_idx: i,
            comover_indices,
            correlations: correlation_values,
        });
    }
    
    all_pairs
}

Portfel shakllantirish va beta hisoblash

Pirson yondashuvi har bir aktsiya uchun birgalikda harakatlanuvchilardan (comover) portfellar yaratadi, so'ngra regressiya koeffitsiyentlarini hisoblaydi:

fn calculate_beta(stock_returns: &[f64], portfolio_returns: &[f64]) -> f64 {
    let cov_xy = covariance(stock_returns, portfolio_returns);
    let var_x = variance(portfolio_returns);
    
    if var_x.abs() < f64::EPSILON {
        return 0.0;
    }
    
    cov_xy / var_x
}

fn covariance(x: &[f64], y: &[f64]) -> f64 {
    assert_eq!(x.len(), y.len());
    
    let n = x.len() as f64;
    let mean_x: f64 = x.iter().sum::<f64>() / n;
    let mean_y: f64 = y.iter().sum::<f64>() / n;
    
    let sum_cov: f64 = x.iter()
        .zip(y.iter())
        .map(|(&xi, &yi)| (xi - mean_x) * (yi - mean_y))
        .sum();
    
    sum_cov / n
}

fn variance(x: &[f64]) -> f64 {
    let n = x.len() as f64;
    let mean: f64 = x.iter().sum::<f64>() / n;
    
    let sum_var: f64 = x.iter()
        .map(|&xi| (xi - mean).powi(2))
        .sum();
    
    sum_var / n
}

Savdo signalini generatsiya qilish

Ikkala yondashuvdagi yakuniy bosqich ajralish chegaralariga asoslanib savdo signallarini generatsiya qilishdir:

enum TradingSignal {
    Long,
    Short,
    Neutral
}

struct TradePosition {
    stock1_idx: usize,
    stock2_idx: usize,
    signal: TradingSignal,
    entry_spread: f64,
    timestamp: usize,
}

fn generate_trading_signals(
    normalized_prices: &[Vec<f64>],
    pairs: &[StockPair], 
    threshold_multiplier: f64,
    volatilities: &[f64],
    current_time: usize
) -> Vec<TradePosition> {
    let mut positions = Vec::new();
    
    for (pair_idx, pair) in pairs.iter().enumerate() {
        let stock1_idx = pair.stock1_idx;
        let stock2_idx = pair.stock2_idx;
        
        // Calculate current spread
        let current_spread = normalized_prices[stock1_idx][current_time] - 
                             normalized_prices[stock2_idx][current_time];
                             
        let threshold = threshold_multiplier * volatilities[pair_idx];
        
        let signal = if current_spread > threshold {
            // Stock1 is overvalued relative to Stock2
            TradingSignal::Short
        } else if current_spread < -threshold {
            // Stock1 is undervalued relative to Stock2
            TradingSignal::Long
        } else {
            TradingSignal::Neutral
        };
        
        if signal != TradingSignal::Neutral {
            positions.push(TradePosition {
                stock1_idx,
                stock2_idx,
                signal,
                entry_spread: current_spread,
                timestamp: current_time,
            });
        }
    }
    
    positions
}

Ishlash samaradorligini optimallashtirish

Yuqori chastotali savdo tizimlari uchun ishlash samaradorligi juda muhim. SIMD (Single Instruction, Multiple Data) ko'rsatmalari masofa hisoblashlarini sezilarli darajada tezlashtirishi mumkin:

SIMD tezlashtirish: bir vaqtning o'zida bir nechta narx nuqtalarini qayta ishlash uchun Rust'da ma'lumot darajasidagi parallelizmdan foydalanish, kechikishni keskin kamaytiradi

#[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
use std::arch::x86_64::*;

#[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
#[inline]
unsafe fn euclidean_distance_simd(x: &[f32], y: &[f32]) -> f32 {
    assert_eq!(x.len(), y.len());
    
    let mut sum = _mm256_setzero_ps();
    let chunks = x.len() / 8;
    
    for i in 0..chunks {
        let xi = _mm256_loadu_ps(&x[i * 8]);
        let yi = _mm256_loadu_ps(&y[i * 8]);
        
        let diff = _mm256_sub_ps(xi, yi);
        let squared = _mm256_mul_ps(diff, diff);
        sum = _mm256_add_ps(sum, squared);
    }
    
    // Handle the remaining elements
    let mut result = _mm256_reduce_add_ps(sum);
    
    for i in (chunks * 8)..x.len() {
        result += (x[i] - y[i]).powi(2);
    }
    
    result.sqrt()
}

// Helper function to sum SIMD vector
#[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
#[inline(always)]
unsafe fn _mm256_reduce_add_ps(v: __m256) -> f32 {
    let hilow = _mm256_extractf128_ps(v, 1);
    let low = _mm256_castps256_ps128(v);
    let sum128 = _mm_add_ps(hilow, low);
    
    let hi64 = _mm_extractf128_si128(_mm_castps_si128(sum128), 1);
    let low64 = _mm_castps_si128(sum128);
    let sum64 = _mm_add_ps(_mm_castsi128_ps(hi64), _mm_castsi128_ps(low64));
    
    _mm_cvtss_f32(_mm_hadd_ps(sum64, sum64))
}

Asinxron qayta ishlash, ayniqsa bir nechta aktsiya juftliklari bilan ishlaganda, o'tkazuvchanlik qobiliyatini yanada oshirishi mumkin:

use tokio::task;
use futures::future::join_all;

async fn process_pairs_async(
    normalized_prices: &[Vec<f64>],
    stock_count: usize,
    chunk_size: usize
) -> Vec<StockPair> {
    let mut tasks = Vec::new();
    
    // Split work into chunks
    let chunks = (stock_count + chunk_size - 1) / chunk_size;
    
    for chunk in 0..chunks {
        let start = chunk * chunk_size;
        let end = std::cmp::min((chunk + 1) * chunk_size, stock_count);
        
        let prices_clone = normalized_prices.to_vec();
        
        let task = task::spawn(async move {
            let mut pairs = Vec::new();
            
            for i in start..end {
                for j in (i+1)..stock_count {
                    let distance = euclidean_squared_distance(&prices_clone[i], &prices_clone[j]);
                    
                    pairs.push(StockPair {
                        stock1_idx: i,
                        stock2_idx: j,
                        distance,
                    });
                }
            }
            
            pairs
        });
        
        tasks.push(task);
    }
    
    // Await all tasks and combine results
    let results = join_all(tasks).await;
    
    let mut all_pairs = Vec::new();
    for result in results {
        if let Ok(pairs) = result {
            all_pairs.extend(pairs);
        }
    }
    
    // Sort by distance
    all_pairs.sort_by(|a, b| a.distance.partial_cmp(&b.distance).unwrap_or(std::cmp::Ordering::Equal));
    all_pairs
}

Strategiya implementatsiyasini sinovdan o'tkazish

Implementatsiyamizni baholash uchun bizga to'g'ri sinov infratuzilmasi kerak:

#[cfg(test)]
mod tests {
    use super::*;
    
    #[test]
    fn test_normalization() {
        let prices = vec![10.0, 15.0, 12.0, 18.0, 20.0];
        let normalized = min_max_normalize(&prices);
        
        let expected = vec![0.0, 0.5, 0.2, 0.8, 1.0];
        
        for (a, b) in normalized.iter().zip(expected.iter()) {
            assert!((a - b).abs() < 0.001);
        }
    }
    
    #[test]
    fn test_euclidean_distance() {
        let x = vec![0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5];
        let y = vec![0.15, 0.22, 0.35, 0.38, 0.53];
        
        let distance = euclidean_squared_distance(&x, &y);
        let expected = 0.0049; // Calculated manually
        
        assert!((distance - expected).abs() < 0.0001);
    }
    
    #[test]
    fn test_pearson_correlation() {
        let x = vec![1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0];
        let y = vec![5.0, 4.0, 3.0, 2.0, 1.0];
        
        let corr = pearson_correlation(&x, &y);
        let expected = -1.0; // Perfect negative correlation
        
        assert!((corr - expected).abs() < 0.0001);
    }
    
    // Integration tests would be implemented in tests/ directory
}

Integratsiya sinovlari uchun biz Rust an'anasiga amal qilib, sinovlarni loyiha ildizidagi alohida tests katalogiga joylashtiramiz[15][18].

Xulosa

Masofa yondashuvi juftlik savdosi uchun mustahkam asos yaratadi, asosiy va ilgor metodologiyalarning ikkalasi ham qimmatli statistik arbitraj imkoniyatlarini taklif etadi. Asosiy yondashuv Evklid masofasiga e'tibor qaratib, soddalik va samaradorlikni taqdim etadi, Pirson korrelyatsiya yondashuvi esa qo'shimcha moslashuvchanlik va ehtimoliy jihatdan yaxshiroq ajralishning qaytish xususiyatlarini ta'minlaydi.

Rust'ning ishlash xususiyatlari uni ushbu hisoblash jihatidan intensiv strategiyalarni amalga oshirish uchun ideal til qiladi, ayniqsa SIMD va parallel qayta ishlash kabi optimizatsiyalar bilan. Statistik qat'iylik va samarali implementatsiyaning uyg'unligi algoritmik treyderlar uchun kuchli vositalar to'plamini yaratadi.

Juftlik savdosi tizimini amalga oshirishda bir necha jihatlar hisobga olinishi kerak:

1. Soddalik (asosiy yondashuv) va kuchaytirilgan statistik quvvat (Pirson yondashuvi) o'rtasidagi murosaga kelish
2. Keng ko'lamli juftlik tahlili uchun zarur bo'lgan hisoblash resurslari
3. Foydaliylikka sezilarli ta'sir ko'rsatishi mumkin bo'lgan tranzaksiya xarajatlari[3]
4. Juftliklarni doimiy monitoring qilish va qayta kalibrlash zarurati

Masofa yondashuvini Rust'ning ishlash imkoniyatlari bilan birlashtirish orqali treyderlar zamonaviy bozorlar uchun talab qilinadigan tezlik va miqyosda ishlashga qodir bo'lgan yuqori darajada samarali va effektiv statistik arbitraj tizimlarini ishlab chiqishlari mumkin.

Citation

@software{soloviov2025distanceapproach,
  author = {Soloviov, Eugen},
  title = {Distance Approach in Pairs Trading: Implementation and Analysis with Rust},
  year = {2025},
  url = {https://marketmaker.cc/en/blog/post/distance-approach-pairs-trading},
  version = {0.1.0},
  description = {A comprehensive analysis of basic and advanced Distance Approach methodologies for pairs trading, with practical implementations in Rust tailored for high-frequency traders and algorithmic developers.}
}

References

1. Hudson Thames - Introduction to Distance Approach in Pairs Trading Part II
2. Hudson Thames - Distance Approach in Pairs Trading Part I
3. Reddit - Pairs Trading is Too Good to Be True?
4. GitHub - Kucoin Arbitrage
5. docs.rs - Euclidean Distance in geo crate
6. Simple Linear Regression in Rust
7. GitHub - correlation_rust
8. docs.rs - Cointegration in algolotl-ta
9. GitHub - trading_engine_rust
10. docs.rs - distances crate
11. Reddit - Looking for stats crate for Dickey-Fuller
12. crates.io - crypto-pair-trader
13. w3resource - Rust Structs and Enums Exercise
14. Rust Book - Test Organization
15. Design Patterns in Rust
16. GitHub - simd-euclidean
17. Rust by Example - Integration Testing
18. YouTube - Integration Testing in Rust
19. Stack Overflow - Calculate Total Distance Between Multiple Points
20. Databento - Pairs Trading Example
21. Rust std - f64 Primitive
22. Hudson & Thames - Distance Approach Documentation
23. GitHub - trading-algorithms-rust
24. docs.rs - linreg crate
25. Rust Book - References and Borrowing
26. Stack Overflow - How to Interpret adfuller Test Results
27. lib.rs - arima crate
28. Econometrics with R - Cointegration
29. DolphinDB - adfuller Function
30. docs.rs - arima crate (latest)
31. Wikipedia - Cointegration